CHAPTER 4 HISTORY CLASS 12

Class 12 History – Chapter 4

By Aarish Sir

Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings: Cultural Developments

1. Introduction

• This chapter deals with the period between 600 BCE – 600 CE.

• It was a time of intense debates, discussions and new ideas about religion, philosophy and society.

• Many traditions like Buddhism, Jainism, Upanishadic philosophy, and Puranic Hinduism emerged.

• Alongside, there was development of architecture and sculptures – stupas, temples, caves, idols.

• Historians use a variety of sources: texts (Vedic, Buddhist, Jain), inscriptions, and monuments like the Sanchi Stupa.

2. A Glimpse of Sanchi

• Sanchi Stupa (Madhya Pradesh) – one of the finest examples of early Buddhist architecture.

• Built originally by Ashoka (3rd century BCE); enlarged later.

• Features: large dome, gateways (toranas), railings, medhi (terrace).

• Inscriptions on the stupa record donations by ordinary people: monks, nuns, merchants, lay worshippers.

• In the 19th century, European officials wanted to take away gateways and pillars;
  but rulers of Bhopal (Begums like Shahjehan Begum and Sultan Jehan Begum) preserved and repaired them.

• Today, Sanchi is a UNESCO World Heritage site.

3. Vedic Sacrifices and Debates

Early Vedic Sacrifices (1500–1000 BCE)

• Rigveda mentions sacrifices performed by rajas and chiefs with the help of priests.

• Deities: Agni (fire), Indra (war), Soma (sacred drink).

• Aim: cattle, sons, victory in battles, long life.

Later Vedic Sacrifices

• Became more elaborate and costly.

• Performed by kings: Rajasuya (consecration), Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice), Vajapeya.

• Brahmanas claimed monopoly over these rituals.

New Questions & Debates

• Many people began to question sacrifices:

  • Was ritual the only path to salvation?

  • What is the meaning of life and death?

  • Is there rebirth? What is the nature of ultimate reality?

• Around 64 schools of thought emerged.

• Discussions held in kutagarashalas (meeting halls) and forests.

• Thinkers were called tapasvins, parivrajakas, bhikshus etc.

• Some believed in fatalism (destiny), others like Lokayata/Charvaka were materialists (denied afterlife).

4. Jainism – Mahavira’s Teachings

• Founded by Vardhamana Mahavira (6th century BCE), 24th Tirthankara.

• Teachings:

  1. Universe is alive, even rocks, water and plants have life (souls).

  2. Ahimsa (non-violence) – no harm to any living being.

  3. Cycle of karma and rebirth can be broken by renunciation.

  4. Monks and nuns took five vows:

     • Not to kill

     • Not to lie

     • Not to steal

     • Celibacy

     • Not to own property

• Spread: Patronised by traders, commoners.

• Literature: Written in Prakrit, Sanskrit, Tamil.

• Division into Shvetambaras (white-clad) and Digambaras (sky-clad).

5. Buddhism – The Buddha and His Dhamma

• Life of Buddha (563–483 BCE):

  • Born in Lumbini (Sakya clan, Kshatriya family).

  • Shocked by sights of old age, sickness, death; left palace (Mahabhinishkramana).

  • Attained enlightenment (bodhi) at Bodh Gaya under a peepal tree.

  • Delivered first sermon at Sarnath (Dharmachakra Pravartana).

  • Died at Kusinara (Mahaparinirvana).

• Teachings (Dhamma):

  1. Four Noble Truths:

     • Life is full of suffering (dukkha).

     • Cause of suffering is desire (tanha).

     • By ending desire, suffering ends.

     • The way is the Eightfold Path.

  2. Eightfold Path: right view, resolve, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, meditation.

  3. Everything is impermanent (anicca).

  4. No permanent self/soul (anatta).

  5. Goal: Nirvana (freedom from cycle of rebirth).

• Sangha (Monastic Order):

  • Monks (bhikkhus) and nuns (bhikkhunis).

  • Accepted alms, followed strict rules.

  • Sangha was democratic – decisions taken in assemblies.

• Spread:

  • Supported by kings (Ashoka, Kanishka) and commoners.

  • Missionaries spread Buddhism to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Central Asia.

6. Religious Architecture

Stupas

• Stupa = burial mound containing relics of Buddha or monks.

• Symbolic meaning: represents universe.

• Structure: anda (dome), harmika (railing on top), chhatra (umbrella), toranas (gateways).

• Examples: Sanchi, Amaravati, Bharhut.

Temples

• From around 4th century CE, temples built for Hindu deities (Shiva, Vishnu, Durga).

• Features: garbhagriha (sanctum), shikhara (tower), mandapa (hall).

• Example: Dashavatara temple at Deogarh.

Cave Architecture

• Rock-cut caves in western India (Ajanta, Ellora, Karle, Bhaja).

• Used by Buddhists, Jains and Hindus for meditation, worship.

7. Symbols in Art

• Early Buddhist art did not depict Buddha in human form. Instead used symbols:

  • Empty throne – his presence.

  • Bodhi tree – enlightenment.

  • Stupa – nirvana.

  • Wheel (Dharmachakra) – first sermon.

  • Animals like elephant, horse, bull, lion.

• Later, Buddha was shown in anthropomorphic form (statues).

8. New Religious Traditions

• From early centuries CE, Bhakti traditions emerged in Hinduism.

• Worship of Vishnu, Shiva, Devi became popular.

• Puranas composed – accessible to common people.

• Rituals: image worship, temple visits, festivals.

• Importance of personal devotion and emotional bond between devotee and deity.

9. Can We See Everything?

• Historical evidence is incomplete.

• Many traditions were oral and have not survived.

• Material remains are scattered and sometimes damaged.

• Historians reconstruct past using texts, inscriptions, sculptures, architecture.

10. Important Dates

• 1500–1000 BCE – Rigvedic period.

• 600 BCE – Rise of Jainism & Buddhism.

• 563 BCE – Birth of Buddha.

• 468 BCE – Death of Mahavira.

• 3rd century BCE – Ashoka builds stupas.

• 1st–2nd century CE – Mahayana Buddhism, cave temples.

• 4th–5th century CE – Puranas, Hindu temples.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Q1. Who was Vardhamana Mahavira?
Ans. Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism. He spread Jain principles like non-violence, truth, and renunciation in the 6th century BCE.

Q2. Who was Gautama Buddha?
Ans. Gautama Buddha was the founder of Buddhism. He attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya and gave his first sermon at Sarnath.

Q3. Name the two earliest Buddhist traditions.
Ans. The two earliest Buddhist traditions were Theravada and Mahayana.

Q4. Where is the stupa of Sanchi located?
Ans. The stupa of Sanchi is located near Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh.

Q5. What are Tripitakas?
Ans. Tripitakas are the sacred texts of Buddhism, divided into three parts – Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, and Abhidhamma Pitaka.

Short Answer Type Questions

Q6. What were the main teachings of Jainism?
Ans. The main teachings of Jainism are:

1. Non-violence (Ahimsa) towards all living beings.

2. Truth (Satya) must always be spoken.

3. Non-stealing (Asteya) – do not take what is not given.

4. Celibacy (Brahmacharya).

5. Non-possession (Aparigraha) – renouncing material wealth.

Q7. Mention the main teachings of Buddhism.
Ans.

1. The Four Noble Truths – suffering exists, it has a cause, it can end, and the path to end suffering.

2. The Eightfold Path – right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration.

3. Middle Path (avoid extremes of luxury and hardship).

4. Belief in Karma and rebirth.

5. Emphasis on compassion, equality, and meditation.

Q8. Why were stupas built?
Ans. Stupas were built as burial mounds to house relics of the Buddha and other monks. They became places of worship and pilgrimage for Buddhists.

Q9. Write a short note on Sanchi stupa.
Ans. The Great Stupa at Sanchi was originally commissioned by Ashoka the Great in the 3rd century BCE. It has a large hemispherical dome, gateways (toranas), and is decorated with carvings depicting Jataka tales. It is an important center of Buddhist art and architecture.

Q10. What is the significance of the Jataka tales?
Ans. Jataka tales describe the previous lives of Buddha in both human and animal forms. They taught moral values and spread Buddhist teachings in simple stories for the common people.

Long Answer Type Questions

Q11. Discuss the role of Ashoka in the spread of Buddhism.
Ans.

• After the Kalinga War, Ashoka adopted Buddhism and promoted non-violence (Dhamma).

• He built stupas, viharas, and pillars inscribed with Buddhist teachings.

• He sent missionaries to Sri Lanka, Central Asia, and South-East Asia.

• Through state patronage, Buddhist philosophy spread widely during his reign.

Q12. Describe the features of Buddhist architecture.
Ans.

1. Stupas – hemispherical mounds preserving relics of Buddha.

2. Chaityas – prayer halls with stupas inside.

3. Viharas – monasteries where monks lived.

4. Use of stone carvings, pillars, and symbolic representations of Buddha (lotus, wheel, footprints, Bodhi tree).

5. Example: Sanchi Stupa, Amaravati, Ajanta caves.

Q13. Explain the differences between Jainism and Buddhism.
Ans.

Aspect	Jainism	Buddhism
Founder	Mahavira (24th Tirthankara)	Gautama Buddha
Belief in God	Atheistic, but believed in Tirthankaras	Atheistic, did not believe in God
Path	Severe asceticism, strict penance	Middle Path, moderate lifestyle
Language	Used Prakrit	Used Pali
Followers	Mostly merchants and traders	Common people, kings like Ashoka

Very Long Answer

Q14. Describe the contribution of Buddhism to Indian culture.
Ans.

• Art and Architecture: Development of stupas, chaityas, viharas, Ajanta paintings, Gandhara and Mathura schools of art.

• Language and Literature: Use of Pali and Prakrit helped common people access religion. Buddhist texts like Tripitakas enriched literature.

• Social Impact: Promoted equality, non-violence, and upliftment of women and lower castes.

• Political Influence: Kings like Ashoka and Kanishka supported Buddhism, spreading Indian culture abroad.

• Philosophy: Emphasis on morality, compassion, and meditation shaped Indian thought.