Through the Eyes of Travellers — Detailed Notes
Introduction & Significance
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Travel accounts from foreigners provide insights into social, economic, cultural, and religious life in India in medieval times.
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These travellers often wrote about what they found unusual or noteworthy.
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Their accounts are valuable but need to be used carefully, considering their biases and limitations.
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This chapter focuses on three travellers: Al‑Biruni (11th century), Ibn Battuta (14th century), and François Bernier (17th century).
1. Al‑Biruni and Kitab‑ul‑Hind
Background & Journey
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Al‑Biruni was born around 973 CE in Khwarizm (Central Asia).
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He knew several languages such as Arabic, Persian, Syriac, Hebrew, and he studied Sanskrit.
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He came into contact with India (especially under Mahmud of Ghazni) and undertook study of Indian traditions and knowledge systems.
Kitab‑ul‑Hind — Key Features
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Written in Arabic, in clear and systematic style, divided into many chapters covering diverse topics.
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Topics include: religion and philosophy, festivals, customs, law, social life, sciences (astronomy, mathematics), and measurement systems.
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Each chapter often begins with a question or theme, describes the Indian version, then compares it with other cultures.
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Al‑Biruni’s approach was analytical; he tried to understand Indian thought on its own terms.
His Understanding of Indian Society
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Barriers to comprehension: Recognized that language (Sanskrit vs Arabic), religious ideas, and cultural assumptions posed challenges in understanding local concepts.
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Caste and social divisions: He studied Brahmanical texts (Vedas, Puranas, etc.) to learn about the varna / caste system, and noted that theoretical prescriptions and actual practice often differed.
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He drew parallels with social stratification in other societies, suggesting that hierarchical social divisions are not unique to India.
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He was critical of the notion of ritual “pollution” and questioned some social norms that seemed inconsistent with natural reasoning.
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Al‑Biruni’s descriptions were more scholarly and methodical, less value‑laden compared to later travellers.
2. Ibn Battuta and Rihla
Background & Travels
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Ibn Battuta was born in 1304 in Tangier (Morocco).
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He travelled extensively across the Islamic world, Central Asia, Africa, and into India.
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His travel narrative is known as Rihla (“The Journey”) and is rich in observations of social, cultural, economic life.
Observations on Indian Society
Urban Life & Cities
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He described Indian towns and cities as densely populated and prosperous.
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Bazaars (markets) were vibrant centres of trade and daily life, combining economic, social, and cultural functions.
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Public performance spaces, temples, mosques were integral parts of urban life.
Agriculture & Economy
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He admired the fertility of land; farmers could often produce two crops in a year.
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Manufacturing and crafts flourished: textiles (cottons, muslins, silks), brocades, etc., were in high demand regionally and internationally.
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He noted active trade with West Asia and Southeast Asia.
Postal / Communication System
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He was impressed by the efficient postal / courier systems:
• Horse‑post system (uluq)
• Foot‑post (dawa)
Women, Slaves, and Social Customs
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He noted the existence of slavery; slaves (especially female) were used for domestic service and in courts.
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He recorded various social customs that appeared exotic to him (coconut, betel / paan, etc.).
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His narrative sometimes emphasizes what is unfamiliar or striking; everyday life of ordinary people often remains less documented.
3. François Bernier and Travels in the Mughal Empire
Who He Was & His Motive
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Bernier was a French physician, historian, and philosopher.
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He spent about twelve years (1656–1668) in India, particularly connected to the Mughal court as physician to Dara Shukoh (Shah Jahan’s son) and later to nobles.
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His writings compare Indian society and governance with European systems, often to the detriment of India.
His Views on Indian Society & Economy
Land, Ownership & Agriculture
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One of his central claims: there was no private ownership of land; all land belonged to the emperor (crown).
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Because land could not be inherited, landholders (those cultivating or managing land) had little incentive to improve it.
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He argued this system led to neglect of agriculture, decline in productivity, and led to peasant suffering.
Social Structure & Inequality
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He asserted that Indian society lacked a middle class; there were a few very rich and many extremely poor.
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He described a wide social gulf between the ruling elite and the masses.
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According to him, artisans lacked incentive to improve product quality because surplus was often taken by the state.
Urban Centres & Towns
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He talked about different kinds of towns — manufacturing towns, trade towns, pilgrimage towns, camp towns (i.e. towns tied to imperial camps).
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He listed urban groups: mahajans, sheths, nagar sheths, hakim, physicians, scholars, artists, musicians, calligraphers, etc.
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He was critical of decay and inequality in towns, sometimes painting a pessimistic picture compared to what he perceived in Europe.
Women, Slavery & Customs
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He discussed sati — noting that while some women accepted death voluntarily, others were forced into it.
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He also referred to the sale of slaves and use of female slaves in households and courts.
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He acknowledged women’s labour in agriculture and craft, and participation in commerce (especially in merchant families).
4. Strengths & Weaknesses of Traveller Accounts
Strengths
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Provide firsthand descriptions from external viewpoints, often highlighting things that local texts omit.
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Cover a broad range of topics: religion, society, economy, art, customs, governance.
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Enable comparison over time — seeing similarities and differences in what travellers from different eras observed.
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Help historians fill gaps in local records or supplement them.
Weaknesses / Limitations & Biases
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Travel writers usually belong to elite, educated classes, and their concerns and interests may not reflect the everyday life of common people.
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Cultural distance, language barriers, and worldview can distort or misinterpret local practices.
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A tendency to highlight the “exotic” or “strange” — what catches their attention — rather than balanced, comprehensive coverage.
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Judgemental comparison: especially with Bernier, who often judged India by European standards.
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Regional bias: many travellers stayed in particular regions or courts; their picture may not represent the whole subcontinent.
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Selective omissions: many aspects of social life (e.g. children, rural poor, local minor communities) are underrepresented.
5. Themes, Concepts & Key Ideas
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Perception vs Reality: Traveller accounts reflect both what they saw and how their own background framed their observations.
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Cultural Relativism: Understanding customs in their social and cultural context rather than judging by external norms.
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Social stratification & inequality: Caste, class, wealth disparities, and roles of women as seen by outsiders.
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Economy & trade networks: How domestic production, craft, and interregional trade operated.
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State, land & power: The relationship between land, revenue, and political authority.
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Value of sources with critical reading: Recognizing biases, cross‑checking facts, and combining multiple sources (inscriptions, archaeology, local texts) with traveller accounts.
QUESTION ANSWERS
was François Bernier? Describe his journey to India and the purpose of his travels.
Answer
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François Bernier was a French physician, traveler, historian, and philosopher.
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He visited India in the 17th century during the reign of the Mughal empire.
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His writings, “Travels in the Mughal Court,” provide his observations on Indian society, politics, economy, and culture. L
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Purpose & preparations:
• He intended to travel with the Mughal army to Kashmir, etc., to see various parts of the empire.
• He carried with him two good Turkoman horses, a Persian camel with a driver, a groom for horses, a cook, and a servant to carry water ahead.
• His aim was to observe closely the administration, the rural and urban life, to report to European readers on the condition of the Mughal realm.
Q2. How useful are the travel accounts of Ibn Battuta in reconstructing urban life in medieval India? Give reasons.
Answer
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Usefulness / what we learn:
1. Ibn Battuta describes Indian cities as densely populated, prosperous, with bustling markets, and social and cultural activity.
2. He mentions the structure of markets (bazaars), the mix of economic and religious structures (temples, mosques in cities, bazaars).
3. Public life: fixed places for performances (music, dance) and social gatherings.
4. Trade links: he remarks on demand for Indian textiles and craft goods, long‑distance trade flows connecting Indian artisans to foreign markets. -
Limitations / caveats:
• His accounts are selective and reflect what struck him as unusual or exotic; everyday lives of common people often go unrecorded.
• There may be exaggeration or unfamiliarity with local customs, leading to misinterpretations.
• Focus is often on larger or court cities; smaller towns or rural‑urban periphery less well covered.
• Bias: comparisons with his home culture may color his descriptions.
Hence, while Ibn Battuta’s writings are extremely valuable, historians must use them with caution and corroborate with other sources (archaeology, inscriptions, local texts).
Q3. “Bernier’s description of rural society is oversimplified and biased.” Examine this statement, by referring to his views on land ownership, peasantry, and social classes.
Answer (10 marks):
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Bernier’s views:
• He believed that in Mughal India, all land was effectively owned by the emperor (crown ownership). He criticized this for preventing private property.
• Because land could not be inherited, landholders lacked incentives to improve or invest in the land, leading to decline in agricultural productivity.
• He argued that the peasantry was oppressed, there was little middle class, and the social divide was stark: very rich ruling class and masses of poor, no stable intermediaries.
• He denounced decay in villages: fields overgrown, marshes, neglected land.
• He also admitted that artisans were discouraged from quality improvement because profits were taken by the state.
• On crafts, he also noted excellent workmanship in gold, painting, weapons, etc. -
Critique / oversimplification:
• His portrayal lumps all of rural India into a uniform picture, ignoring regional variations, local agency, and resilience among peasantry.
• There is little documentary or archaeological evidence supporting an all‑emperor land ownership as he describes; many local customary rights, hereditary rights, intermediaries may have existed.
• He tends to see decline and degeneration, ignoring places where agriculture or local trade may have been thriving.
• His European viewpoint predisposes him to compare badly to Europe, thereby exaggerating negative aspects and downplaying positives.
• Some of his statements reflect moral judgement rather than neutral observation. -
Conclusion:
Bernier’s account is a useful piece of evidence, but it must be cross‑checked and balanced with other local sources. His account is not a fully reliable mirror of rural society in Mughal India.
Q4. Read this passage from Bernier and answer the questions:
“Numerous are the instances of handsome pieces of workmanship made by persons destitute of tools … Among other things, the Indians make excellent muskets … beautiful gold ornaments … I often admired the beauty, softness, and delicacy of their paintings.”
a) Name the crafts mentioned in the passage.
b) Compare these crafts with the description of artisanal activity in the chapter.
Answer (6 marks):
a) The crafts mentioned:
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Muskets / firearms
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Fowling‑pieces (guns)
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Gold ornaments / jewelry
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Painting (fine art)
b) Comparison with chapter:
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The chapter mentions many crafts and artisanal activities: textile weaving (silks, cottons, brocades), carpet weaving, goldsmithing, painting, architecture, sculpture, pottery, etc.
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Bernier’s mention adds evidence that even those without formal tools or training could produce fine work, showing skill diffusion and local ingenuity.
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It aligns with the idea that Indian artisans produced high quality goods that were competitive even compared to Europe, contributing to trade.
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But Bernier’s emphasis is somewhat selective: some crafts (textile, ceramics) get more prominence in textbook treatment; Bernier highlights what impressed him (metals, arms, painting).
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