Peasants, Zamindars and the State (Mughal India)

1. Introduction

During the Mughal Empire (16th–17th centuries), the agricultural economy formed the backbone of society. Most people lived in villages, cultivated land, and paid revenue to the state. The administration created a complex system to regulate land, taxation, and rural society. This chapter covers:

Peasants (raiyats)
Landowners (zamindars)
The Mughal state’s revenue system
Manuals like Ain-i-Akbari
Agricultural practices & rural hierarchy

2. AGRICULTURE UNDER THE MUGHALS

2.1 Types of land

The Mughal state classified land based on fertility:

Polaj – regularly cultivated and fertile land.
Parauti – left fallow for a year or two.
Chachar – fallow for 3–4 years.
Banjar – uncultivable wasteland.

2.2 Agricultural production

Main crops: wheat, rice, millets, pulses.
Cash crops: cotton, indigo, sugarcane, oilseeds.
Commercialization increased due to urban demand.
New techniques like iron ploughs, crop rotation existed but productivity remained stable.

3. THE PEASANTRY (RAIYATS)

3.1 Majority population

Peasants formed 80% of the population.
They were of different categories: small peasants, khud-kashta (resident cultivators), and pahi-kashta (migrant cultivators).

3.2 Rights of peasants

They did not own land but had hereditary rights to cultivate.
Could sell or transfer their holding with permission.

3.3 Responsibilities

Paid land revenue (called jama).
Performed begar (forced labor) at times.
Depended on monsoon and village community support.

3.4 Peasant movement

Occasional rebellions occurred due to:
- Excessive revenue demand
- Famine or drought
- Oppression by zamindars or officials

Examples: Jat peasant revolts in the 17th century.

4. THE ZAMINDARS

4.1 Who were Zamindars?

Landholding elites who collected revenue from peasants on behalf of the state.
They held zamin (land rights) but were not owners in the modern sense.

4.2 Types of Zamindars

Intermediary zamindars – recognized by Mughals, hereditary.
Village-level chiefs – controlled clans or tribes.
Religious/khud-kashta elites – local influential families.

4.3 Functions of Zamindars

Collect taxes.
Maintain law and order.
Protect peasants.
Mobilize soldiers for the Mughal army.

4.4 Zamindari rights

They received nazarana (gifts), malikana (share of produce).
Controlled large estates (zamindaris).
Acted as mediators between the state and peasants.

5. MUGHAL REVENUE SYSTEM

5.1 Land revenue: backbone of the empire

90% of the state income came from land revenue.
Revenue assessment was scientific and detailed.

5.2 Akbar's Revenue System — Zabti or Ain-i-Dahsala

Introduced by Raja Todar Mal:

Land surveyed & measured carefully using bamboo jaribs.
Average yield of past 10 years calculated.
Cash revenue rate fixed for each crop.
Peasants could pay in cash or kind.

5.3 Other systems

Kankut – estimation of produce.
Nasaq – rough assessment.
Galla Bakshi – revenue collected as a share of product.

6. VILLAGE COMMUNITY

6.1 Village officials

Patwari – kept land records.
Qanungo – supervised revenue.
Muqaddam – village headman.
Chaudhuri – chief revenue collector.

6.2 Social structure

Castes and jatis played an important role.
Artisans like carpenters, weavers, blacksmiths supported rural economy.
Jajmani system ensured exchange of services.

7. SOURCE: AIN-I-AKBARI

Abu’l Fazl’s Ain-i-Akbari (1598) is the most important source for this chapter.

It gives information about:

Revenue system
Prices and wages
Accounts of crops
Classification of land
Role of zamindars
Condition of peasants

It is part of the larger text Akbarnama.

8. DECLINE OF THE MUGHAL AGRARIAN SYSTEM

By the 18th century:

Over-assessment of revenue led to peasant distress.
Rise of autonomous zamindars reduced central control.
Wars of succession and weak rulers strained finances.

Q1. Who were the zamindars in the Mughal period?

Ans:
Zamindars were hereditary landholding elites who collected land revenue from peasants for the Mughal state. They maintained law and order, controlled rural society, and enjoyed social and economic privileges such as collecting malikana and receiving gifts. They acted as intermediaries between the peasants and the administration.

Q2. Explain the features of Akbar’s revenue system.

Ans:
Akbar’s revenue system, called Zabti or Ain-i-Dahsala, was formulated by Raja Todar Mal. Its main features were:

Careful land measurement using jaribs.
Classification of land into polaj, parauti, chachar, and banjar.
Calculation of 10-year average yield.
Fixing crop-wise cash rates.
Revenue payment allowed in cash or kind.
This system brought efficiency and uniformity to the empire.

Q3. What were the causes of peasant revolts in the 17th century?

Ans:
Peasant revolts occurred due to:

Excessive revenue demands.
Oppression by zamindars and officials.
Natural calamities like drought.
Decline in real wages and rising prices.
Weakening Mughal authority.

Example: Jat and Satnami revolts.

Q4. Describe the condition of peasants in Mughal India.

Ans:
Peasants formed the majority population and cultivated various crops. They had hereditary rights but not ownership. They paid high revenue and often suffered from poverty, famine, and forced labor (begar). Despite hardships, they maintained village life through mutual cooperation and community ties.

Q5. What information does the Ain-i-Akbari provide about agrarian society?

Ans:
Ain-i-Akbari gives detailed information on:

Agricultural practices and crop yields
Land classification
Revenue rates
Roles of zamindars and peasants
Prices, wages, and administrative setup
It is the most important source for Mughal agrarian history.

Q6. Distinguish between Khud-Kashta and Pahi-Kashta peasants.

Ans:

Khud-Kashta: Resident peasants who lived in the same village permanently. They had better rights and stability.
Pahi-Kashta: Migrant peasants who cultivated land in another village. They were less stable and often migrated for better opportunities.

Advance tutoring by Aarish Sir

Monday, November 24, 2025

Peasants, Zamindars and the State