PRINT CULTURE AND THE MODERN WORLD

Print Culture and the Modern World

By Aarish Sir

Introduction

• Print culture refers to the impact of the printed material (books, newspapers, journals) on society and culture.

• Printing revolutionized the way ideas were spread and played a key role in the modern world, including social, religious, and political revolutions.

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🕰️ 1. The First Printed Books

🌏 In East Asia:

• China: Earliest print technology; began with handwritten manuscripts and later woodblock printing (Tang Dynasty - 7th century).

• Japan: Buddhist missionaries brought printing from China.

• Korea: Developed metal movable type even before Europe.

🇪🇺 In Europe:

• Johannes Gutenberg of Germany developed the first printing press with movable type around 1440.

• The Bible was the first major book printed — Gutenberg Bible (1455).

• This started the Print Revolution in Europe.

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🔄 2. The Print Revolution and Its Impact

📌 What is Print Revolution?

• A dramatic change in how books were produced and distributed — from hand-copied manuscripts to mass-printed texts.

✅ Impact of Print Revolution:

1. Increased production of books – Books became cheaper and more accessible.

2. Spread of knowledge – Literacy increased among common people.

3. New ideas and debates – Encouraged critical thinking and questioning of authorities.

4. Reformation movement – Martin Luther's ideas spread through printed pamphlets.

5. Scientific Revolution – Scientific knowledge circulated more widely.

6. Ideas of Enlightenment – Philosophers like Rousseau and Voltaire spread ideas of liberty, democracy, and equality.

7. Reading became a leisure activity – Fiction, romance, and newspapers became popular.

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🇮🇳 3. Print Comes to India

🕉️ Before Printing:

• India had a rich oral and manuscript tradition.

• Manuscripts were written on palm leaves or handmade paper.

🛬 Arrival of Print:

• Portuguese missionaries introduced the printing press in Goa in 1556.

• The first book printed in India: "Jardim do Rey" (Garden of the King) in Portuguese.

📰 Growth of Printing:

• English, Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Tamil presses started emerging by 18th century.

• Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay became important centers.

• Indian newspapers emerged: e.g., Samachar Darpan, Kesari, Amrita Bazar Patrika.

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🧠 4. Religious Reform and Public Debates

✝️ Religious Reforms:

• Printed texts spread reformist and revivalist ideas across Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, and Sikhism.

• Raja Ram Mohan Roy used the press to campaign against Sati.

• Dayanand Saraswati, Syed Ahmed Khan, and others used print for reforms.

📢 Public Debates:

• People debated issues like widow remarriage, caste, child marriage, and women's education.

• Pamphlets, newspapers, and books became tools for discussion.

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👩‍🎓 5. Print and Women

• Women's literacy increased due to printed books.

• New journals and books were published for and by women.

• Examples:

  • Sultana’s Dream by Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain (1905) – a feminist utopia.

  • Women from upper castes and middle classes began writing novels, poetry, and essays.

  • Some conservative groups opposed women reading novels, fearing it would corrupt them.

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🧑🏾‍🌾 6. Print and the Poor

• Chapbooks (cheap books) were sold in markets for poor readers.

• Penny magazines and low-cost newspapers made reading affordable.

• Encouraged self-education and spread of political awareness.

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✊ 7. Print and Nationalism in India

• Print became a powerful tool in the freedom struggle.

Key Roles of Print in Nationalism:

1. Spread of nationalist ideas – through newspapers, journals, and books.

2. Leaders used print to communicate with people – e.g., Tilak's 'Kesari', Gandhi's 'Young India'.

3. Mass mobilization – common people became politically aware.

4. Colonial censorship – British feared the power of the press and imposed laws like:

   • Vernacular Press Act (1878) – restricted freedom of Indian-language newspapers.

   • Despite restrictions, nationalist print continued to grow.

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✍️ Important Personalities

Name	Contribution
Gutenberg	Invented the printing press in Europe
Raja Ram Mohan Roy	Used press for social reform
Tilak	Used Kesari to awaken nationalism
Rokeya S. Hossain	Early Muslim feminist writer
Syed Ahmed Khan	Social reformer who used print
Gandhi	Used newspapers like Young India

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📌 Important Terms

Term	Meaning
Manuscript	Handwritten documents
Print Culture	Culture shaped by printed material
Pamphlet	Small booklet used to spread ideas
Chapbook	Cheap books for the poor
Censorship	Suppression of printed material by authority

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📝 HOTS (Higher Order Thinking Skills) / Exam Questions

1. How did print culture affect the spread of nationalism in India?

   • Enabled mass awareness, mobilization, and unity.

   • Leaders used print to reach out to people.

   • Helped in spreading ideas of freedom and reform.

2. What were the effects of print revolution in Europe?

   • Increased literacy.

   • Helped the Reformation and Enlightenment.

   • Led to democratic ideas and revolutions.

3. Why did British authorities control the Indian press?

   • Feared rise of nationalism.

   • Press criticized colonial rule.

   • Introduced laws like Vernacular Press Act to suppress dissent.

📋 Summary

• The invention of the printing press was revolutionary.

• It changed religious, political, and social life in Europe and India.

• In India, it became a tool for reform and later a strong weapon in the fight for independence.

• Print culture democratized knowledge and created a space for new ideas, debates, and movements.

✅ Very Short Answer Questions (1 Mark)

Q1. Who invented the printing press and when?

Answer:
Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press around 1440 in Germany.

Q2. When did the printing press come to India and who introduced it?

Answer:
The printing press came to India in 1556 and was introduced by the Portuguese missionaries in Goa.

Q3. Name the first book printed in India.

Answer:
"Jardim do Rey" (Garden of the King) was the first book printed in India.

Q4. What was the Vernacular Press Act?

Answer:
The Vernacular Press Act (1878) was a law passed by the British to restrict the freedom of the Indian-language press.

Q5. Name one early feminist writer in India.

Answer:
Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain, author of Sultana's Dream.

Short Answer Questions 

Q6. What were the effects of the print revolution in Europe?

Answer:

1. Books became cheaper and widely available.

2. Literacy increased, especially among the middle class.

3. Spread of new ideas, like the Reformation and Enlightenment.

4. Helped in scientific development and democratic revolutions.

Q7. How did print help spread religious reform in India?

Answer:

1. Reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy used print to criticize practices like Sati.

2. Dayanand Saraswati, Syed Ahmed Khan, and others used it to spread religious ideas.

3. Enabled debates and dialogue between different religious groups.

4. Spread spiritual books, pamphlets, and reformist literature to the masses.

Q8. What was the impact of print on women in India?

Answer:

1. Increased literacy among women.

2. Books and journals were published for and by women.

3. Women like Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain and Kashibai became writers.

4. Raised awareness about women’s rights and education.

Q9. How did print culture lead to the growth of nationalism in India?

Answer:

1. Spread nationalist ideas through newspapers and pamphlets.

2. Leaders like Tilak used the press to reach the public (Kesari).

3. Created political awareness among common people.

4. Despite British censorship, nationalist writers continued publishing.

Q10. What role did print play in spreading modern education?

Answer:

1. Educational books were mass-printed, making learning more accessible.

2. Supported the spread of scientific and rational thinking.

3. Helped in the standardization of curricula.

4. Encouraged self-learning among poor and rural populations.

✅ Long Answer Questions (5–6 Marks)

Q11. Explain the impact of the printing press on European society.

Answer:

The printing press had a transformative impact on European society:

1. Increased Availability of Books:

   • Books became cheaper and easier to produce.

   • Encouraged reading among the masses, not just the elite.

2. Rise in Literacy:

   • As books became accessible, literacy rates improved, especially in towns.

3. Religious Reformation:

   • Martin Luther’s 95 Theses spread widely through print, challenging the Church.

   • Reformation would not have been possible without mass printing.

4. Scientific and Rational Thinking:

   • Scientists shared their discoveries quickly.

   • Encouraged the Scientific Revolution.

5. Political and Social Change:

   • Ideas of liberty, equality, and democracy spread through pamphlets and books.

   • Led to movements like the French Revolution.

Q12. Describe the development of print in India.

Answer:

1. Introduction:

   • Print came to India with the Portuguese in 1556 in Goa.

2. Growth of Indian-language presses:

   • By the 19th century, Indian presses in Hindi, Urdu, Tamil, Bengali, and more began.

   • Early newspapers included Samachar Darpan, Bombay Samachar, and Kesari.

3. Use in Religious Reform:

   • Reformers published books and pamphlets.

   • E.g., Raja Ram Mohan Roy used it against Sati.

4. Literature and Women’s Empowerment:

   • Women began reading and writing.

   • Works like Sultana’s Dream showed early feminism.

5. Political Role:

   • Used for anti-colonial propaganda.

   • The British imposed laws like the Vernacular Press Act (1878).

Q13. How did people in India respond to print technology?

Answer:

1. Enthusiastic Acceptance:

   • People from all walks of life were eager to read books, newspapers, and magazines.

2. New Readers and Writers Emerged:

   • Women, the lower castes, and even the poor began engaging with books.

   • Rise of autobiographies, novels, essays, and poetry.

3. Debates and Opposition:

   • Conservatives believed that novels and modern literature would corrupt society.

   • Women reading novels was considered improper by some.

4. Diverse Content:

   • Print culture included religious texts, social reform literature, fiction, education, and nationalist writing.

Introduction to Depreciation

1. Introduction to Depreciation

By Aarish Sir

In business, assets like machinery, furniture, buildings, vehicles, and equipment are purchased to help in producing goods and services. These are fixed assets and have a long useful life. However, they do not last forever. Their value decreases gradually with use, passage of time, or due to new technology. This decline in value is known as Depreciation.

Depreciation is an accounting concept that ensures the cost of a fixed asset is not charged in one year but spread over the years during which it is used. This gives a fair and accurate picture of profit or loss of the business.

2. Meaning of Depreciation

• Depreciation is a permanent, continuous, and gradual decrease in the book value of a tangible fixed asset due to use, wear and tear, passage of time, or obsolescence.

• It is not a sudden fall in value (like in case of accidents).

• It is a non-cash expense, meaning no money is spent at the time of recording depreciation—it is just a book entry.

Definitions:

• Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI):
  “Depreciation is a measure of the wearing out, consumption, or other loss of value of a depreciable asset arising from use, effluxion of time, or obsolescence through technology and market changes.”

• Accounting Standard (AS-6):
  “Depreciation is a systematic allocation of the depreciable amount of an asset over its useful life.”

3. Features of Depreciation

1. Decline in Value: Depreciation represents a fall in the book value of assets.

2. Gradual Process: It occurs gradually over time, not suddenly.

3. Non-Cash Expense: No actual outflow of cash is involved.

4. Charge Against Profits: It is shown as an expense in the Profit and Loss Account.

5. Related to Fixed Assets: Depreciation is charged only on tangible fixed assets (not on current assets like stock).

6. Allocation of Cost: It spreads the cost of the asset across its useful life.

4. Causes of Depreciation

1. Wear and Tear:

   • Physical deterioration due to regular use of assets.

   • Example: Machinery in a factory gets worn out after continuous use.

2. Obsolescence:

   • Due to invention of better technology, existing assets lose value even if physically in good condition.

   • Example: Typewriters lost value after the invention of computers.

3. Passage of Time (Effluxion of Time):

   • Certain assets decline in value simply with the passage of time.

   • Example: Patents, leases, and licenses.

4. Depletion:

   • Natural resources (mines, oil wells, quarries) lose value as they are extracted.

   • Example: A coal mine reduces in value as coal is mined out.

5. Accidents or Damages:

   • Unexpected damages may reduce the value of an asset suddenly.

5. Objectives of Providing Depreciation

1. Correct Calculation of Profits:

   • If depreciation is not charged, profits will be overstated.

   • Example: If machinery worth ₹1,00,000 is used for 10 years, charging full cost in one year is unfair.

2. True Financial Position:

   • Balance Sheet should show assets at correct value, i.e., cost minus depreciation.

3. Replacement of Assets:

   • Depreciation creates a reserve that helps in replacing assets after their useful life.

4. Legal Requirement:

   • As per Companies Act and Income Tax Act, depreciation must be provided.

5. Uniformity in Reporting:

   • Helps in making fair comparison of profits across different years.

6. Important Terms

• Cost of Asset: Purchase price + installation charges + freight + taxes + other incidental expenses.

• Residual Value (Scrap Value): Estimated value of asset at the end of its useful life.

• Depreciable Value: Cost of Asset – Residual Value.

• Useful Life: Estimated time period for which the asset can be used productively.

7. Methods of Depreciation

(A) Straight Line Method (SLM)

• Equal amount of depreciation is charged every year.

• Formula:
  Annual Depreciation = (Cost of Asset – Residual Value) ÷ Useful Life

Example:
Machinery Cost = ₹1,00,000, Scrap Value = ₹10,000, Life = 5 years
Depreciation = (1,00,000 – 10,000)/5 = ₹18,000 per year

Advantages:

• Simple and easy.

• Equal burden on each year.

• Suitable when asset gives equal utility every year.

Disadvantages:

• Book value may not represent true market value after some years.

• Not suitable for assets where utility decreases with time.

(B) Written Down Value Method (WDV)

• A fixed percentage of depreciation is charged every year on the book value of the asset.

• Formula:
  Depreciation = Opening Book Value × Rate of Depreciation (%)

Example:
Machine Cost = ₹1,00,000, Rate = 10%
Year 1: Depreciation = 1,00,000 × 10% = ₹10,000
Year 2: Depreciation = 90,000 × 10% = ₹9,000
Year 3: Depreciation = 81,000 × 10% = ₹8,100

Advantages:

• Book value never becomes zero.

• More scientific as asset provides higher benefits in earlier years.

• Accepted by Income Tax authorities.

Disadvantages:

• More complex than SLM.

• Depreciation is not uniform every year.

(C) Other Methods (Less Focus in Class 11 but useful to know)

1. Annuity Method – Depreciation + Interest = Equal amount annually.

2. Depreciation Fund Method – Amount invested outside business every year.

3. Insurance Policy Method – Premium paid on policy, maturity amount replaces asset.

4. Depletion Method – Used for mines, oil wells, forests.

8. Accounting Treatment of Depreciation

Method 1: When Depreciation is charged directly to Asset Account

• Journal Entry:
  Depreciation A/c Dr.
  To Asset A/c

• Transfer to Profit & Loss A/c:
  Profit & Loss A/c Dr.
  To Depreciation A/c

Method 2: When Provision for Depreciation Account is maintained

• Journal Entry:
  Depreciation A/c Dr.
  To Provision for Depreciation A/c

• Transfer to Profit & Loss A/c:
  Profit & Loss A/c Dr.
  To Depreciation A/c

9. Difference between SLM and WDV

Basis	Straight Line Method (SLM)	Written Down Value Method (WDV)
Basis of Calculation	Original Cost	Book Value at beginning of year
Depreciation Amount	Equal every year	Decreasing every year
Book Value at End	May become zero	Never becomes zero
Suitability	Assets with uniform utility (furniture, patents)	Assets with more use in initial years (machinery, vehicles)
Acceptance	Not accepted by IT authorities	Accepted by IT authorities

10. Advantages of Providing Depreciation

• Helps in showing true financial position.

• Ensures correct profit calculation.

• Accumulates funds for asset replacement.

• Meets legal requirements.

• Avoids over-distribution of profits.

11. Practical Examples (as in T.S. Grewal)

1. A machine purchased for ₹50,000, scrap value ₹5,000, life = 5 years. Calculate depreciation (SLM).

   • Depreciation = (50,000 – 5,000)/5 = ₹9,000 per year.

2. A machine purchased for ₹40,000, depreciation @ 10% WDV. Calculate depreciation for 2 years.

   • Year 1: 40,000 × 10% = ₹4,000

   • Year 2: 36,000 × 10% = ₹3,600

12. Importance of Depreciation in Business

• Reflects the real value of assets in the Balance Sheet.

• Ensures that profits are not overstated.

• Provides funds for future expansion and replacement.

• Helps in better decision-making for management.

CONSUMER AWARENESS CLASS 10 ECONOMICS

 Consumer Rights

By Aarish Sir

 Important Question Answers

1. Who is a consumer?

Answer:
A consumer is a person who buys goods or avails services for personal use, not for resale or commercial purposes. According to the Consumer Protection Act, 1986, a consumer is one who:

• Buys goods or hires services for consideration (money, promise to pay, etc.)

• Uses goods with the approval of the buyer (e.g., family member)

• Is not engaged in resale or commercial purposes.

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2. What are consumer rights?

Answer:
Consumer rights are the rights given to every consumer to protect them from unfair trade practices and exploitation. The main consumer rights are:

1. Right to Safety – protection against hazardous goods and services.

2. Right to Information – about quality, quantity, price, purity, etc.

3. Right to Choose – freedom to select from a variety of goods and services.

4. Right to be Heard – consumer’s interests must be heard in forums.

5. Right to Seek Redressal – against unfair trade practices.

6. Right to Consumer Education – awareness of rights and responsibilities.

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3. What is the need for consumer awareness?

Answer:
Consumer awareness is necessary because:

• Many sellers adopt unfair trade practices like adulteration, overcharging, black marketing, etc.

• Consumers are often exploited due to lack of information about products and services.

• False advertising misleads buyers.

• To ensure safety, health, and quality of life.

• To strengthen consumers to demand their rights and avoid exploitation.

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4. What is the Consumer Protection Act (COPRA)? When was it enacted?

Answer:
The Consumer Protection Act (COPRA) is a law enacted by the Government of India in 1986 to protect consumers from exploitation and provide redressal against unfair trade practices.

• It established a three-tier consumer dispute redressal system (District, State, National levels).

• It legally recognized consumer rights.

• It empowers consumers to take legal action against sellers/service providers.

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5. What are consumer responsibilities?

Answer:
Along with rights, consumers also have some responsibilities:

1. Be aware of rights and duties.

2. Buy goods after checking ISI, AGMARK, Hallmark, etc.

3. Check expiry date, price, weight, and quality.

4. Demand bills and receipts.

5. File complaints against unfair trade practices.

6. Avoid being influenced blindly by advertisements.

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6. What is a consumer forum?

Answer:
Consumer forums (or consumer protection councils) are voluntary organizations formed by consumers to:

• Guide consumers about rights and responsibilities.

• Help them file complaints in consumer courts.

• Take up cases of consumer exploitation collectively.

• Spread awareness about consumer issues through campaigns and publications.

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7. What is the three-tier redressal mechanism under COPRA?

Answer:
The three-tier system under COPRA includes:

1. District Consumer Forum – For claims up to ₹20 lakhs.

2. State Consumer Commission – For claims between ₹20 lakhs and ₹1 crore.

3. National Consumer Commission – For claims above ₹1 crore.

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8. Explain the Right to Information (RTI).

Answer:
The Right to Information (RTI) Act was passed in 2005 to promote transparency in the functioning of government organizations. Under this act:

• Any citizen can request information from government departments.

• It ensures accountability and reduces corruption.

• It empowers consumers to know about government policies, spending, and decisions.

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9. Why is it important to look for logos like ISI, Agmark, and Hallmark?

Answer:

• These logos are quality certifications that ensure safety and reliability.

• ISI mark – for industrial products (fans, heaters, pressure cookers).

• Agmark – for agricultural products (pulses, grains, oils).

• Hallmark – for gold and jewellery.
  By checking these marks, consumers are protected from adulteration, substandard quality, and fraud.

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10. What are the various ways by which consumers can be exploited?

Answer:
Consumers are often exploited through:

• Adulteration (mixing harmful substances in food items).

• Overcharging (charging more than MRP).

• Underweight and under-measurement.

• Misleading advertisements.

• Black marketing and hoarding.

• Sale of defective goods.

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11. How can consumers seek redressal against exploitation?

Answer:
Consumers can:

• Approach consumer forums and courts established under COPRA.

• File complaints online at consumer helplines.

• Take help of voluntary consumer organizations.

• Approach media to highlight exploitation.

• Exercise their rights collectively through consumer movements.

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12. What is the significance of consumer movements in India?

Answer:

• Consumer movements create awareness about consumer rights.

• They act as pressure groups on business firms and the government.

• They have led to the enactment of laws like COPRA (1986) and RTI (2005).

• They help consumers get justice in case of exploitation.

CONSUMER PROTECTION CLASS 10 NOTES

CONSUMER PROTECTION CLASS 10 ECONOMICS

BY Aarish Sir

The consumer in the market place

People participate in the market both as producers and consumers. As a producer they sell their goods and provide services to the needy people.

Producers provide service in the sector like, agriculture sector or primary sector, secondary sector or manufacturing sector and service sector or tertiary sector.

As a consumer, a person purchase goods and services that he/she need.

Consumers exploited in the marketplace by the producers in various ways. In informal sector, borrowers are exploited by the moneylenders.

People borrow money from moneylenders at high rate of interest and also forced by the moneylenders to pay the loan timely.

In unorganized sector, people have to work at a low wage which is not fair.

Sometimes, consumers get less weigh than what they should get and the producer also charged the price which is not maintained.

Some big companies are manipulated the market in various ways like, by passing false information about the product through media and other sources to attract consumers. So, there is a need for rules and regulations to ensure protection for consumers.

Consumer movement

There are no for rules and regulations to ensure protection for consumers. The consumers are exploited by the producers.

For example, if a consumer is not satisfied with the product of any brand or shop. Then he/she avoid and stop to purchase from that particular brand or shop.

In this case, all the responsibilities are shifted to the consumer for purchasing of the products.

When the consumers are dissatisfied with unfair rule and regulation for purchasing of goods and services, then the consumer movement is arisen.

Here, unfair rule and regulation is indulged by the sellers. It is a type of social force.

During 1960, Rampant food shortages, hoarding, black marketing, adulteration of food and edible oil gave birth to the consumer movement in an organized form in India.

This organization receives financial support from the government for creating awareness among the people.

Till the 1970s, consumer organizations formed consumer groups with increasing number of consumer organization.

This group found to look into the malpractices in ration shops and overcrowding in the road passenger transport.

In 1986, a major step was taken by the government of India in the form of the Consumer Protection Act 1986.

Consumer rights

(i) Safety is everyone right

There are many goods and services which are hazardous for the health and property. So, that goods and services require special attention to safety. Consumers have the right to be protected against the marketing of goods and delivery of services which are hazardous for the health and services. Producers also need to follow the required rules and regulations for safety of consumers.

(ii) Information about goods and services

Manufacturer of goods and services should have maintained information about the ingredients used, price, batch number, date of manufacture, expiry date, the address of the manufacturer, directions for proper use’ and information relating to side effects and risks associated with usage of that particular goods and services. Consumers have right to know about the details of that particular goods and services that they purchased.

Right to Information Act

“Right to Information Act”, was enacted by the government of India in October 2005. The objective of this act is to ensure its citizens all the information about the functions of government departments. There are three reasons for formation of “Right to information”.

(i) When choice is denied
When a consumer is not satisfied with Purchasing of a particular goods and services then he/she have right to deny the choice.

(ii) Where should consumers go to get justice?
When a consumer deny the choice. Then he/she has the right to seek redressal against unfair trade practices and exploitation. She/he has the right to get compensation depending on the degree of damage. For compensation she/he has to go consumer forums or consumer protection councils. This organization guide consumers on how to file cases in the consumer court.

A three-tier quasi-judicial machinery at the district, state and national levels was set up for redressal of consumer disputes, under Consumer Protection Act.

The district level court deals with the cases involving claims upto Rs 20 lakhs, the state level courts deal with cases between Rs 20 lakhs and Rs 1 crore and the national level court deals with cases involving claims exceeding Rs 1 crore.

When a case is dismissed in district level court, then consumer can appeal in state and then in National level courts. This act provides “Right to Represent” to the consumer.

(iii) Learning earning to become well-informed consumer
For well-informed the consumer about their rights, Consumer Protection Act has led to the setting up of separate departments of Consumer Affairs in central and state governments.

Taking the consumer movement forward

Indian Parliament enacted the Consumer Protection Act on 24 December 1986. After that every year 24 December is celebrated as the National Consumers’ Day.

There are 20-25 are well organized and recognized consumer groups in India out of 200 consumer groups. After the enactment of “Consumer Protection Act” in India consumer awareness is spreading but slowly.

The consumer redressal process is becoming cumbersome, expensive and time consuming.
(i) Consumers are required to engage lawyers.
(ii) In most purchases cash memos are not issued hence evidence is not easy to gather.

• ISI and Agmark
ISI and Agmark is quality certification for many products like, LPG cylinders, food colours and additives, cement or packed drinking water. It is compulsory for the producers to get certified by these organizations.

• Hallmark
Hallmark is quality certification for jewelry. This mark is issued by Indian Standard Organization which is located in New Delhi.

• ISO certification
International organization for standardization is quality certification which indicates companies, goods or, institutions having this certification meet the specific level of standard. The headquarter of ISO is situated in Geneva, which was established in 1947

CHAPTER 4 HISTORY CLASS 12

Class 12 History – Chapter 4

By Aarish Sir

Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings: Cultural Developments

1. Introduction

• This chapter deals with the period between 600 BCE – 600 CE.

• It was a time of intense debates, discussions and new ideas about religion, philosophy and society.

• Many traditions like Buddhism, Jainism, Upanishadic philosophy, and Puranic Hinduism emerged.

• Alongside, there was development of architecture and sculptures – stupas, temples, caves, idols.

• Historians use a variety of sources: texts (Vedic, Buddhist, Jain), inscriptions, and monuments like the Sanchi Stupa.

2. A Glimpse of Sanchi

• Sanchi Stupa (Madhya Pradesh) – one of the finest examples of early Buddhist architecture.

• Built originally by Ashoka (3rd century BCE); enlarged later.

• Features: large dome, gateways (toranas), railings, medhi (terrace).

• Inscriptions on the stupa record donations by ordinary people: monks, nuns, merchants, lay worshippers.

• In the 19th century, European officials wanted to take away gateways and pillars;
  but rulers of Bhopal (Begums like Shahjehan Begum and Sultan Jehan Begum) preserved and repaired them.

• Today, Sanchi is a UNESCO World Heritage site.

3. Vedic Sacrifices and Debates

Early Vedic Sacrifices (1500–1000 BCE)

• Rigveda mentions sacrifices performed by rajas and chiefs with the help of priests.

• Deities: Agni (fire), Indra (war), Soma (sacred drink).

• Aim: cattle, sons, victory in battles, long life.

Later Vedic Sacrifices

• Became more elaborate and costly.

• Performed by kings: Rajasuya (consecration), Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice), Vajapeya.

• Brahmanas claimed monopoly over these rituals.

New Questions & Debates

• Many people began to question sacrifices:

  • Was ritual the only path to salvation?

  • What is the meaning of life and death?

  • Is there rebirth? What is the nature of ultimate reality?

• Around 64 schools of thought emerged.

• Discussions held in kutagarashalas (meeting halls) and forests.

• Thinkers were called tapasvins, parivrajakas, bhikshus etc.

• Some believed in fatalism (destiny), others like Lokayata/Charvaka were materialists (denied afterlife).

4. Jainism – Mahavira’s Teachings

• Founded by Vardhamana Mahavira (6th century BCE), 24th Tirthankara.

• Teachings:

  1. Universe is alive, even rocks, water and plants have life (souls).

  2. Ahimsa (non-violence) – no harm to any living being.

  3. Cycle of karma and rebirth can be broken by renunciation.

  4. Monks and nuns took five vows:

     • Not to kill

     • Not to lie

     • Not to steal

     • Celibacy

     • Not to own property

• Spread: Patronised by traders, commoners.

• Literature: Written in Prakrit, Sanskrit, Tamil.

• Division into Shvetambaras (white-clad) and Digambaras (sky-clad).

5. Buddhism – The Buddha and His Dhamma

• Life of Buddha (563–483 BCE):

  • Born in Lumbini (Sakya clan, Kshatriya family).

  • Shocked by sights of old age, sickness, death; left palace (Mahabhinishkramana).

  • Attained enlightenment (bodhi) at Bodh Gaya under a peepal tree.

  • Delivered first sermon at Sarnath (Dharmachakra Pravartana).

  • Died at Kusinara (Mahaparinirvana).

• Teachings (Dhamma):

  1. Four Noble Truths:

     • Life is full of suffering (dukkha).

     • Cause of suffering is desire (tanha).

     • By ending desire, suffering ends.

     • The way is the Eightfold Path.

  2. Eightfold Path: right view, resolve, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, meditation.

  3. Everything is impermanent (anicca).

  4. No permanent self/soul (anatta).

  5. Goal: Nirvana (freedom from cycle of rebirth).

• Sangha (Monastic Order):

  • Monks (bhikkhus) and nuns (bhikkhunis).

  • Accepted alms, followed strict rules.

  • Sangha was democratic – decisions taken in assemblies.

• Spread:

  • Supported by kings (Ashoka, Kanishka) and commoners.

  • Missionaries spread Buddhism to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Central Asia.

6. Religious Architecture

Stupas

• Stupa = burial mound containing relics of Buddha or monks.

• Symbolic meaning: represents universe.

• Structure: anda (dome), harmika (railing on top), chhatra (umbrella), toranas (gateways).

• Examples: Sanchi, Amaravati, Bharhut.

Temples

• From around 4th century CE, temples built for Hindu deities (Shiva, Vishnu, Durga).

• Features: garbhagriha (sanctum), shikhara (tower), mandapa (hall).

• Example: Dashavatara temple at Deogarh.

Cave Architecture

• Rock-cut caves in western India (Ajanta, Ellora, Karle, Bhaja).

• Used by Buddhists, Jains and Hindus for meditation, worship.

7. Symbols in Art

• Early Buddhist art did not depict Buddha in human form. Instead used symbols:

  • Empty throne – his presence.

  • Bodhi tree – enlightenment.

  • Stupa – nirvana.

  • Wheel (Dharmachakra) – first sermon.

  • Animals like elephant, horse, bull, lion.

• Later, Buddha was shown in anthropomorphic form (statues).

8. New Religious Traditions

• From early centuries CE, Bhakti traditions emerged in Hinduism.

• Worship of Vishnu, Shiva, Devi became popular.

• Puranas composed – accessible to common people.

• Rituals: image worship, temple visits, festivals.

• Importance of personal devotion and emotional bond between devotee and deity.

9. Can We See Everything?

• Historical evidence is incomplete.

• Many traditions were oral and have not survived.

• Material remains are scattered and sometimes damaged.

• Historians reconstruct past using texts, inscriptions, sculptures, architecture.

10. Important Dates

• 1500–1000 BCE – Rigvedic period.

• 600 BCE – Rise of Jainism & Buddhism.

• 563 BCE – Birth of Buddha.

• 468 BCE – Death of Mahavira.

• 3rd century BCE – Ashoka builds stupas.

• 1st–2nd century CE – Mahayana Buddhism, cave temples.

• 4th–5th century CE – Puranas, Hindu temples.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Q1. Who was Vardhamana Mahavira?
Ans. Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism. He spread Jain principles like non-violence, truth, and renunciation in the 6th century BCE.

Q2. Who was Gautama Buddha?
Ans. Gautama Buddha was the founder of Buddhism. He attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya and gave his first sermon at Sarnath.

Q3. Name the two earliest Buddhist traditions.
Ans. The two earliest Buddhist traditions were Theravada and Mahayana.

Q4. Where is the stupa of Sanchi located?
Ans. The stupa of Sanchi is located near Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh.

Q5. What are Tripitakas?
Ans. Tripitakas are the sacred texts of Buddhism, divided into three parts – Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, and Abhidhamma Pitaka.

Short Answer Type Questions

Q6. What were the main teachings of Jainism?
Ans. The main teachings of Jainism are:

1. Non-violence (Ahimsa) towards all living beings.

2. Truth (Satya) must always be spoken.

3. Non-stealing (Asteya) – do not take what is not given.

4. Celibacy (Brahmacharya).

5. Non-possession (Aparigraha) – renouncing material wealth.

Q7. Mention the main teachings of Buddhism.
Ans.

1. The Four Noble Truths – suffering exists, it has a cause, it can end, and the path to end suffering.

2. The Eightfold Path – right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration.

3. Middle Path (avoid extremes of luxury and hardship).

4. Belief in Karma and rebirth.

5. Emphasis on compassion, equality, and meditation.

Q8. Why were stupas built?
Ans. Stupas were built as burial mounds to house relics of the Buddha and other monks. They became places of worship and pilgrimage for Buddhists.

Q9. Write a short note on Sanchi stupa.
Ans. The Great Stupa at Sanchi was originally commissioned by Ashoka the Great in the 3rd century BCE. It has a large hemispherical dome, gateways (toranas), and is decorated with carvings depicting Jataka tales. It is an important center of Buddhist art and architecture.

Q10. What is the significance of the Jataka tales?
Ans. Jataka tales describe the previous lives of Buddha in both human and animal forms. They taught moral values and spread Buddhist teachings in simple stories for the common people.

Long Answer Type Questions

Q11. Discuss the role of Ashoka in the spread of Buddhism.
Ans.

• After the Kalinga War, Ashoka adopted Buddhism and promoted non-violence (Dhamma).

• He built stupas, viharas, and pillars inscribed with Buddhist teachings.

• He sent missionaries to Sri Lanka, Central Asia, and South-East Asia.

• Through state patronage, Buddhist philosophy spread widely during his reign.

Q12. Describe the features of Buddhist architecture.
Ans.

1. Stupas – hemispherical mounds preserving relics of Buddha.

2. Chaityas – prayer halls with stupas inside.

3. Viharas – monasteries where monks lived.

4. Use of stone carvings, pillars, and symbolic representations of Buddha (lotus, wheel, footprints, Bodhi tree).

5. Example: Sanchi Stupa, Amaravati, Ajanta caves.

Q13. Explain the differences between Jainism and Buddhism.
Ans.

Aspect	Jainism	Buddhism
Founder	Mahavira (24th Tirthankara)	Gautama Buddha
Belief in God	Atheistic, but believed in Tirthankaras	Atheistic, did not believe in God
Path	Severe asceticism, strict penance	Middle Path, moderate lifestyle
Language	Used Prakrit	Used Pali
Followers	Mostly merchants and traders	Common people, kings like Ashoka

Very Long Answer

Q14. Describe the contribution of Buddhism to Indian culture.
Ans.

• Art and Architecture: Development of stupas, chaityas, viharas, Ajanta paintings, Gandhara and Mathura schools of art.

• Language and Literature: Use of Pali and Prakrit helped common people access religion. Buddhist texts like Tripitakas enriched literature.

• Social Impact: Promoted equality, non-violence, and upliftment of women and lower castes.

• Political Influence: Kings like Ashoka and Kanishka supported Buddhism, spreading Indian culture abroad.

• Philosophy: Emphasis on morality, compassion, and meditation shaped Indian thought.

रासायनिक अभिक्रियाएँ एवं समीकरण

कक्षा 10 विज्ञान – अध्याय 1

आरिश सर 

रासायनिक अभिक्रियाएँ एवं समीकरण
(प्रश्न–उत्तर हिन्दी में)

प्रश्न 1. रासायनिक अभिक्रिया से आप क्या समझते हैं?

उत्तर:
जब एक या अधिक पदार्थ आपस में क्रिया करके नए गुण एवं नई संरचना वाले पदार्थों का निर्माण करते हैं, तो इसे रासायनिक अभिक्रिया कहते हैं। उदाहरण –
2Mg + O₂ → 2MgO

प्रश्न 2. रासायनिक अभिक्रिया के मुख्य लक्षण लिखिए।

उत्तर:
रासायनिक अभिक्रिया होने पर सामान्यतः निम्नलिखित लक्षण दिखाई देते हैं –

1. गैस का उत्सर्जन होना

2. अवक्षेप (Precipitate) का बनना

3. ऊर्जा का उत्सर्जन या अवशोषण (उष्माक्षेपी/उष्माशोषी अभिक्रिया)

4. रंग में परिवर्तन

5. गंध में परिवर्तन

6. प्रकाश का उत्सर्जन

प्रश्न 3. रासायनिक समीकरण क्या है?

उत्तर:
रासायनिक समीकरण एक प्रकार का प्रतीकात्मक निरूपण है जिसमें अभिकारक (Reactants) और उत्पाद (Products) को उनके रासायनिक सूत्रों द्वारा दर्शाया जाता है।
उदाहरण:
Zn + H₂SO₄ → ZnSO₄ + H₂ ↑

प्रश्न 4. समीकरण का सन्तुलन क्यों आवश्यक है?

उत्तर:
समीकरण का संतुलन आवश्यक है क्योंकि द्रव्यमान संरक्षण के नियम (Law of Conservation of Mass) के अनुसार रासायनिक अभिक्रिया में न तो द्रव्यमान का नाश होता है और न निर्माण। अतः अभिकारकों एवं उत्पादों के परमाणुओं की संख्या बराबर होना आवश्यक है।

प्रश्न 5. अपघटन (Decomposition) अभिक्रिया क्या है? उदाहरण सहित समझाइए।

उत्तर:
जिस अभिक्रिया में एक यौगिक टूटकर दो या अधिक सरल पदार्थों में बदल जाता है, उसे अपघटन अभिक्रिया कहते हैं।
उदाहरण –
CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂

प्रश्न 6. द्विस्थापन (Double Displacement) अभिक्रिया क्या है?

उत्तर:
ऐसी अभिक्रिया जिसमें दो यौगिक आपस में अपने आयन बदलकर नए यौगिकों का निर्माण करते हैं, उसे द्विस्थापन अभिक्रिया कहते हैं।
उदाहरण –
AgNO₃ + NaCl → AgCl ↓ + NaNO₃

प्रश्न 7. ऊष्माक्षेपी और ऊष्माशोषी अभिक्रियाओं में क्या अन्तर है?

उत्तर:

• ऊष्माक्षेपी (Exothermic): जिन अभिक्रियाओं में ऊष्मा बाहर निकलती है।
  उदाहरण – C + O₂ → CO₂ + ऊष्मा

• ऊष्माशोषी (Endothermic): जिन अभिक्रियाओं में ऊष्मा का अवशोषण होता है।
  उदाहरण – CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂ (ऊष्मा द्वारा)

प्रश्न 8. अपचयन (Reduction) एवं ऑक्सीकरण (Oxidation) अभिक्रिया को उदाहरण सहित समझाइए।

उत्तर:

• ऑक्सीकरण: किसी पदार्थ में ऑक्सीजन का जुड़ना या हाइड्रोजन का निकलना।
  उदाहरण – 2Mg + O₂ → 2MgO

• अपचयन: किसी पदार्थ में हाइड्रोजन का जुड़ना या ऑक्सीजन का निकलना।
  उदाहरण – CuO + H₂ → Cu + H₂O

प्रश्न 9. संक्षेप में निम्नलिखित अभिक्रियाएँ लिखिए –

(क) प्रकाश अपघटन
(ख) विद्युत अपघटन
(ग) उष्मीय अपघटन

उत्तर:
(क) 2AgCl → 2Ag + Cl₂ (प्रकाश की उपस्थिति में)
(ख) 2H₂O → 2H₂ + O₂ (विद्युत द्वारा)
(ग) CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂ (ऊष्मा द्वारा)

प्रश्न 10. ऑक्सीकरण और अपचयन साथ-साथ क्यों होते हैं?

उत्तर:
क्योंकि जब कोई पदार्थ ऑक्सीकरण करता है (ऑक्सीजन ग्रहण करता है या हाइड्रोजन खोता है), तो दूसरा पदार्थ अवश्य ही अपचयन करेगा। अतः दोनों प्रक्रियाएँ एक साथ घटित होती हैं|

CLASS 11 I.T CHAPTER 1

1. Introduction to Computer Networks

• Definition: A computer network is a collection of interconnected computers and devices that can share data, resources, and services.

• Purpose of networking:

  • Resource sharing (files, printers, software).

  • Communication (email, video calls, messaging).

  • Data sharing and transfer.

  • Centralized data management.

2. Types of Networks (Based on Area Coverage)

1. PAN (Personal Area Network)

   • Covers a very small area (few meters).

   • Used for connecting personal devices like smartphones, laptops, earphones, etc.

   • Example: Bluetooth, Infrared.

2. LAN (Local Area Network)

   • Limited to small areas such as office, school, or building.

   • High speed, low cost.

   • Example: Network in a school computer lab.

3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

   • Covers a city or town.

   • Used by cable TV providers, ISPs.

   • Example: Broadband network in a city.

4. WAN (Wide Area Network)

   • Covers large geographical areas, even across countries.

   • Internet is the best example of WAN.

   • Expensive and slower compared to LAN.

3. Network Topologies

• Definition: The arrangement of computers and devices in a network is called network topology.

1. Bus Topology

   • All computers are connected to a single communication line (bus).

   • Cheap but failure of the main cable stops the network.

2. Star Topology

   • All devices connect to a central hub/switch.

   • Easy to install, but hub failure stops the entire network.

3. Ring Topology

   • Devices connected in a circular manner.

   • Data travels in one direction.

   • Failure of one device affects the whole network.

4. Mesh Topology

   • Every device connected to every other device.

   • Very reliable, but costly and complex.

4. Networking Devices

1. Modem – Converts digital signals into analog and vice versa for internet connection.

2. Switch – Connects multiple devices in a LAN and forwards data intelligently.

3. Hub – Connects multiple devices but broadcasts data to all (less efficient than switch).

4. Router – Connects different networks (LAN to WAN, LAN to Internet).

5. Access Point (AP) – Provides wireless connectivity.

6. Gateway – Acts as an entry/exit point for networks using different protocols.

5. Transmission Media

Two main categories:

1. Wired Media

   • Twisted Pair Cable: Cheap, used in LAN.

   • Coaxial Cable: Faster, used for TV and internet.

   • Optical Fiber: High speed, long distance, expensive.

2. Wireless Media

   • Radio Waves: Wi-Fi, Bluetooth.

   • Microwaves: Satellite communication, cell phones.

   • Infrared: Remote controls, short distance communication.

6. Protocols

• Definition: Rules for communication between computers in a network.

Important Protocols:

• HTTP/HTTPS: Transfer of web pages.

• FTP: File transfer.

• SMTP/POP3/IMAP: Email transfer.

• TCP/IP: Core internet protocol.

• VoIP: Voice over Internet (WhatsApp, Skype).

7. IP Address

• Definition: A unique numeric label assigned to each device on a network.

• Types:

  • IPv4: 32-bit address, written as 4 numbers (e.g., 192.168.0.1).

  • IPv6: 128-bit address, written in hexadecimal (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3::7334).

8. Domain Name System (DNS)

• Converts domain names (like www.google.com) into IP addresses.

• Easy for humans to remember.

9. Internet Basics

• Definition: A global network connecting millions of computers.

• Services of Internet:

  • Email

  • World Wide Web (WWW)

  • Social Media

  • Online Shopping/Banking

  • Cloud Storage

  • Video Conferencing

10. Cloud Computing

• Definition: Delivering services (storage, software, computing power) via the internet.

• Examples: Google Drive, Microsoft OneDrive, AWS.

• Advantages: Cost saving, scalability, accessibility.

11. Cyber Security

• Threats:

  • Virus, Worms, Trojan, Phishing, Hacking, Spyware.

• Safety Measures:

  • Strong passwords.

  • Firewalls and antivirus software.

  • Regular updates.

  • Two-factor authentication.

12. E-Governance & E-Commerce

• E-Governance: Use of internet by government for services (e.g., Aadhaar, online tax filing).

• E-Commerce: Buying and selling products/services online (Amazon, Flipkart).

CHAPTER 1 NOTES AND Q&A

Chapter 1: Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

By Aarish Sir

🔹 1. Importance of Chemistry

• Chemistry is the central science – it links physics, biology, medicine, agriculture, and engineering.

• Everything around us (air, food, clothes, medicines, fuels, even our body) is matter → studied in chemistry.

• Applications:

  • Medicine & Health Care – discovery of drugs, vaccines.

  • Agriculture – fertilizers, pesticides.

  • Industry – dyes, plastics, cement, glass, paints.

  • Environment – ozone depletion, global warming.

  • Daily life – soaps, detergents, cosmetics.

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🔹 2. Laws of Chemical Combination

1. Law of Conservation of Mass (Lavoisier)

   • Mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.

   • Example: H₂ + O₂ → H₂O
     Mass of reactants = Mass of products.

2. Law of Definite Proportion (Proust)

   • A chemical compound always contains the same elements in a fixed ratio by mass.

   • Example: Water (H₂O) → H:O = 2:16 = 1:8 by mass.

3. Law of Multiple Proportion (Dalton)

   • When two elements form more than one compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other are in small whole-number ratios.

   • Example:

     • CO → 12:16 (C:O = 3:4)

     • CO₂ → 12:32 (C:O = 3:8)
       Ratio → 1:2

4. Law of Gaseous Volumes (Gay-Lussac)

   • When gases react, they do so in volumes that bear a simple ratio to each other and to the volume of products (at same T & P).

   • Example: H₂ + Cl₂ → 2HCl
     Volumes: 1 + 1 → 2

5. Avogadro’s Law

   • Equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules.

   • This helped in finding atomic and molecular masses.

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🔹 3. Dalton’s Atomic Theory

• Matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.

• Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties.

• Compounds are formed by the chemical combination of atoms in small whole-number ratios.

• Atoms cannot be created or destroyed.

Limitations: Could not explain isotopes, isobars, and the discovery of subatomic particles.

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🔹 4. Atomic and Molecular Mass

• Atomic Mass: Average mass of an atom compared to 1/12 of carbon-12 atom.

• Molecular Mass: Sum of atomic masses of all atoms in a molecule.

  • Example: H₂O → 2(1) + 16 = 18 u.

• Molar Mass: Mass of 1 mole of a substance.

  • H₂O = 18 g/mol.

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🔹 5. Mole Concept

• 1 mole = 6.022 × 10²³ particles (Avogadro number).

• Relations:

  • Moles = Given Mass / Molar Mass

  • Moles = Number of Particles / Avogadro’s Number

  • Moles of gas = Volume at STP / 22.4 L

Example: Find moles in 9 g of H₂O.
M = 18 g/mol → n = 9/18 = 0.5 mol.

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🔹 6. Percentage Composition

$$\% \text{ of element} = \frac{\text{Mass of element in formula}}{\text{Molar mass of compound}} \times 100$$

Example: % of H in H₂O
= (2/18) × 100 = 11.1%
% of O = 88.9%

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🔹 7. Empirical and Molecular Formula

• Empirical Formula: Simplest whole-number ratio of atoms.

• Molecular Formula: Actual number of atoms in a molecule.

$$Molecular\ Formula = n \times Empirical\ Formula$$

where $n = \frac{Molar\ Mass}{Empirical\ Formula\ Mass}$

Example:
A compound has 40% C, 6.7% H, 53.3% O; Molar mass = 60 g.
→ Empirical formula = CH₂O (mass = 30).
→ n = 60/30 = 2.
→ Molecular formula = C₂H₄O₂.

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🔹 8. Stoichiometry

• Quantitative relationship between reactants and products.

Example: How much O₂ is required to burn 2 g of H₂?
Reaction: 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O
4 g H₂ reacts with 32 g O₂.
So, 2 g H₂ reacts with 16 g O₂.

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🔹 9. Limiting Reagent

• The reactant which is completely consumed first, limiting the amount of product.

Example:
5 mol H₂ reacts with 2 mol O₂ → which is limiting?
Reaction: 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O
Ratio = 2:1.
For 2 mol O₂ → 4 mol H₂ required.
We have 5 mol H₂ (excess), so O₂ is limiting reagent.

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🔹 10. Concentration Terms

1. Molarity (M): moles of solute / litre of solution.

2. Molality (m): moles of solute / kg of solvent.

3. Normality (N): gram equivalents / litre of solution.

4. % by mass: (mass of solute / mass of solution) × 100.

5. % by volume: (volume of solute / volume of solution) × 100.

6. ppm: parts per million = mass of solute / mass of solution × 10⁶.

Q1. Define molar mass.

Ans: The mass of one mole of a substance (i.e., 6.022 × 10²³ entities) is called molar mass.
Unit: g mol⁻¹.

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Q2. What is Avogadro’s number?
Ans: The number of particles (atoms, ions, or molecules) in one mole of a substance is called Avogadro’s number.
NA = 6.022 × 10²³ mol⁻¹.

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Q3. Write SI unit of molarity.
Ans: Molarity = moles of solute / volume of solution (in L).
SI unit = mol L⁻¹.

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🔹 SA (2–3 Marks)

Q4. Define empirical formula and molecular formula.
Ans:

• Empirical formula: Shows the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms of each element present in a compound. Example: CH₂O (for glucose).

• Molecular formula: Shows actual number of atoms of each element present in a molecule of compound. Example: C₆H₁₂O₆ (glucose).

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Q5. Calculate the number of molecules present in 11 g of CO₂.
Ans:
Molar mass of CO₂ = 44 g mol⁻¹
Moles of CO₂ = 11 / 44 = 0.25 mol
Number of molecules = 0.25 × 6.022 × 10²³
= 1.505 × 10²³ molecules

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Q6. Define limiting reagent with an example.
Ans:

• The reactant which is completely consumed in a reaction and determines the extent of the reaction is called limiting reagent.

• Example: In the reaction 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O, if 5 mol H₂ and 2 mol O₂ are present, O₂ is limiting reagent (because only 2 mol available instead of 2.5 required).

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🔹 LA (4–5 Marks)

Q7. A sample of Na₂CO₃·10H₂O weighing 106 g is heated strongly until constant mass is obtained. Find the mass of anhydrous Na₂CO₃ left.

Ans:
M(Na₂CO₃·10H₂O) = 286 g mol⁻¹
M(Na₂CO₃) = 106 g mol⁻¹

So, 286 g Na₂CO₃·10H₂O → 106 g Na₂CO₃
∴ 106 g Na₂CO₃·10H₂O → (106 × 106) / 286
= 39.3 g Na₂CO₃

Answer: 39.3 g

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Q8. A mixture contains 5.3 g sodium carbonate and 4.2 g sodium bicarbonate. Calculate the volume of CO₂ liberated at STP on heating the mixture.

Ans:
Reaction:
2NaHCO₃ → Na₂CO₃ + CO₂ + H₂O

M(Na₂CO₃) = 106 g mol⁻¹
M(NaHCO₃) = 84 g mol⁻¹

Moles of Na₂CO₃ = 5.3 / 106 = 0.05 mol
Moles of NaHCO₃ = 4.2 / 84 = 0.05 mol

From reaction, 2 mol NaHCO₃ → 1 mol CO₂
∴ 0.05 mol NaHCO₃ → 0.025 mol CO₂

At STP, 1 mol CO₂ = 22.4 L
∴ Volume of CO₂ = 0.025 × 22.4 = 0.56 L

Answer: 0.56 L CO₂

CULTURAL CHANGE CLASS 12

1. Introduction to Culture

• Culture is the way of life of a society, including beliefs, norms, values, symbols, language, technology, and material objects that members of a society share.

• It is learned, shared, and transmitted from one generation to another.

• Culture is dynamic, which means it changes over time.

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2. Meaning of Cultural Change

• Cultural Change refers to the modification, transformation, or evolution of a society’s cultural patterns over time.

• It occurs in beliefs, values, norms, technology, customs, traditions, and social institutions.

• Sociologists define it as the process by which cultural elements are altered, modified, or replaced by new patterns.

Example:

• The use of mobile phones and the internet has changed communication patterns in Indian society.

• Traditional clothing like dhoti and saree in urban areas is gradually replaced by western clothing like jeans and t-shirts.

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3. Characteristics of Cultural Change

1. Inevitable – No society can remain static; cultural change is a continuous process.

2. Dynamic – Culture constantly adapts to new circumstances.

3. Universal – All societies, whether small or large, undergo cultural change.

4. Cumulative – New elements build on existing cultural patterns.

5. Varied – The rate and type of change vary across societies.

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4. Factors Responsible for Cultural Change

A. Internal Factors (within society)

1. Innovation

   • Introduction of new ideas, practices, or objects within a society.

   • Example: In India, mobile banking, e-learning platforms, and online shopping are innovations changing lifestyles.

2. Social Movements

   • Collective efforts by people to bring about social change.

   • Example: Women’s rights movement, Dalit movements, or anti-corruption movements.

3. Value and Belief System

   • Change in people’s attitudes, norms, and beliefs.

   • Example: Attitudes towards inter-caste marriages have changed over time.

4. Demographic Changes

   • Population growth, urbanization, migration influence culture.

   • Example: Migration from villages to cities changes consumption patterns and lifestyle.

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B. External Factors (outside society)

1. Cultural Diffusion

   • The process by which one society adopts elements of another culture.

   • Example: Yoga spread globally; Western fast food in India.

2. Modernization

   • Adoption of modern ideas, values, and technology from advanced societies.

   • Example: Use of modern agricultural techniques, nuclear families replacing joint families.

3. Globalization

   • Interaction of people, ideas, and goods on a global scale influencing local culture.

   • Example: Social media trends, movies, fashion, and lifestyle habits spread globally.

4. Colonialism and Historical Influence

   • Past foreign rule or contacts can introduce new cultural patterns.

   • Example: English education, legal system, and parliamentary governance in India.

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5. Types of Cultural Change

1. Material Change

   • Change in physical objects or technology of society.

   • Example: Introduction of cars, electricity, computers.

2. Non-Material Change

   • Change in ideas, beliefs, norms, and values.

   • Example: Changing norms regarding women’s education and employment.

3. Planned Change

   • Deliberate efforts to bring about change by government or organizations.

   • Example: Government campaigns like Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, Digital India, Beti Bachao Beti Padhao.

4. Unplanned Change

   • Change that occurs naturally or accidentally due to internal or external factors.

   • Example: Spread of mobile phones and internet changing communication habits.

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6. Theories of Cultural Change

1. Evolutionary Theory (Tylor & Morgan)

   • Societies progress through stages from simple to complex.

   • Example: Hunting-gathering → Agriculture → Industrialization.

2. Functionalist Perspective (Malinowski, Radcliffe-Brown)

   • Cultural elements change to maintain social stability.

   • Example: Urbanization changes family structure to nuclear family to suit modern work conditions.

3. Conflict Perspective (Marx)

   • Cultural change is driven by conflicts between groups or classes.

   • Example: Labor movements leading to new labor laws, women’s movement changing social norms.

4. Modernization Theory

   • Change occurs by adopting modern ideas, science, technology, and rationality.

   • Example: Education reforms introducing computer literacy.

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7. Effects of Cultural Change

Positive Effects:

1. Improves social and economic development.

2. Promotes equality and human rights.

3. Encourages modernization and scientific outlook.

Negative Effects:

1. Cultural conflicts and loss of traditional values.

2. Social disorganization and stress in adapting to rapid changes.

3. Westernization and erosion of indigenous cultural identity.

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8. Examples of Cultural Change in India

1. Urbanization: Shift from joint family to nuclear family.

2. Technological Advancement: Mobile phones, internet, and e-commerce.

3. Women’s Rights: Women working in corporate sectors and politics.

4. Education: Growth of mass education and literacy improving awareness.

5. Globalization: Fast food, Western clothing, music, and social media trends.

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9. Conclusion

• Cultural change is inevitable and continuous in human societies.

• Both internal innovations and external influences contribute to change.

• Sociologists study cultural change to understand societal progress, adaptation, and challenges.

• Awareness of cultural change helps in balancing tradition with modernity.

Question Answers

• What is culture? Culture is a complex whole that includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, customs, and other capabilities and habits acquired by an individual as a member of society. It's a learned and shared way of life that distinguishes one group from another.

• Differentiate between material and non-material culture.

  • Material Culture refers to the tangible, physical objects created and used by a society, such as tools, technology, clothing, buildings, and machines.

  • Non-Material Culture refers to the abstract creations of society that are intangible, such as values, beliefs, norms, customs, language, and ideas.

• What is 'cultural lag'? Cultural lag is a concept introduced by sociologist William F. Ogburn. It refers to the discrepancy that occurs when the non-material culture (beliefs, norms, and values) lags behind the rapid changes in the material culture (technology and inventions). For example, the legal and ethical systems often struggle to keep up with the fast pace of technological advancements like artificial intelligence or genetic engineering.

• Explain 'ethnocentrism' and 'cosmopolitanism'.

  • Ethnocentrism is the tendency to view one's own culture as the center and superior to all other cultures. It involves judging other cultures by the standards of one's own.

  • Cosmopolitanism is the opposite; it is the openness and respect for other cultures, valuing them for their differences and being willing to adopt or share cultural ideas. It recognizes the diversity of cultures without judging them as superior or inferior.

Processes of Cultural Change

• Discuss the two main approaches to studying cultural change. The two main approaches are evolutionary and revolutionary.

  • Evolutionary Change is a slow, gradual, and progressive process. It's a long-term transformation that builds upon existing cultural elements. For instance, the evolution of education from oral traditions to the use of written books and eventually, modern digital learning tools.

  • Revolutionary Change is a rapid, fundamental, and often abrupt transformation of a culture's values and social structures. It is often a result of major political or social upheavals, like the changes that occurred after the French Revolution, which established new values of liberty and equality.

• Explain the role of 'diffusion' and 'acculturation' in cultural change.

  • Diffusion is the spread of cultural traits, ideas, and practices from one society to another. This can happen through trade, migration, or communication. For example, the widespread adoption of specific food items or clothing styles across different countries.

  • Acculturation is a more significant process. It occurs when large-scale contact between two cultures results in one culture adopting the traits of another, often leading to a substantial replacement of traditional cultural patterns. A classic example is the acculturation of Native American cultures after sustained contact with European settlers, where many traditional practices were replaced by European ones.

Factors Driving Cultural Change

• What are the key internal and external factors that lead to cultural change?

  • Internal Factors arise from within a society. They include new inventions (e.g., the internet, which fundamentally changed communication and social interaction) and innovations (new ways of using existing technology or ideas). Social movements and ideological shifts can also be powerful internal drivers of change.

  • External Factors come from outside the society. These include contact with other cultures, which leads to diffusion and acculturation. Events like war, colonization, and globalization are major external forces that can introduce new technologies, ideas, and social practices, profoundly impacting the existing culture.

ECO MIMP

 ECONOMICS

Chapter 1: Development

Q1. What is meant by development? Explain with examples.
Answer:

• Development means growth, progress, or improvement in the living standards of people.

• It is not only about income, but also about health, education, equality, and freedom.

Examples:

• A rich farmer may see development in better irrigation facilities.

• A landless labourer may see development in more employment opportunities.

• A girl may see development in better educational opportunities and gender equality.

👉 Thus, development has different meanings for different people.

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Q2. What are the common indicators of development?
Answer:

1. Income (Per Capita Income):

   • Total income of a country ÷ Total population.

   • It shows the average income of citizens.

2. Infant Mortality Rate (IMR):

   • Number of children dying before 1 year of age out of 1000 live births.

   • Lower IMR = better health facilities.

3. Literacy Rate:

   • Percentage of people above 7 years who can read and write.

4. Life Expectancy:

   • Average number of years a person is expected to live.

5. Net Attendance Ratio:

   • Percentage of children attending school at different stages.

👉 These indicators together give a clear picture of development.

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Q3. What is Human Development Index (HDI)? Who publishes it?
Answer:

• HDI is a measure of development that compares countries on the basis of:

  1. Per capita income (economic standard)

  2. Life expectancy (health standard)

  3. Literacy rate/education (educational standard)

• Published by United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) every year in its Human Development Report.

👉 HDI is considered better than income alone because it includes both economic and non-economic factors.

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Q4. What is sustainable development? Why is it important?
Answer:

• Sustainable development means using natural resources in such a way that they meet the needs of the present without compromising the needs of future generations.

Importance:

• Resources like water, forests, coal, petroleum are limited.

• Overuse leads to environmental problems like pollution, global warming, and shortage of resources.

• Example – if we overuse groundwater today, future generations will face water crisis.

👉 Therefore, development must be sustainable for long-term progress.

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Q5. Why is per capita income not the only criterion for development?
Answer:

• Income does not show how resources are distributed. A country may have high per capita income, but most of the wealth may be with a few people.

• It ignores important aspects like health, education, equality, and freedom.

• Example – Sri Lanka has lower per capita income than India, but has better health and education indicators.

👉 Hence, development should be measured by both income and quality of life.

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Chapter 2: Sectors of Indian Economy

Q1. Explain the three sectors of Indian economy with examples.
Answer:

1. Primary Sector (Agriculture & related activities):

   • Includes activities that use natural resources directly.

   • Examples: farming, fishing, forestry, mining, animal husbandry.

2. Secondary Sector (Manufacturing):

   • Uses natural products from primary sector and converts them into goods.

   • Examples: sugar from sugarcane, textiles, automobiles, steel, cement.

3. Tertiary Sector (Services):

   • Provides services, not goods.

   • Examples: banking, transport, communication, teaching, medicine, IT services.

👉 All three sectors are important for economic growth.

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Q2. Why is the tertiary sector becoming more important in India?
Answer:

• Development of primary and secondary sectors creates demand for services like transport, storage, trade.

• Rise in income levels increases demand for services like education, health, tourism, shopping.

• Globalisation has led to growth of IT and communication services.

• Government invests heavily in services like education, health, defence, law and order.

👉 Today, tertiary sector contributes more than 50% to India’s GDP.

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Q3. What is disguised unemployment? Explain with example.
Answer:

• Disguised unemployment means more people are working in a job than actually required.

• Even if some people are removed, production will not fall.

Example: In a family farm, 8 members may be working, but the work can be done by 4 members. The extra 4 members are disguisedly unemployed.

👉 Common in agriculture and rural areas of India.

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Q4. Distinguish between organised and unorganised sectors.
Answer:

Organised Sector	Unorganised Sector
Registered with government	Not registered with government
Follows labour laws and rules	No fixed rules and regulations
Workers get regular salary, job security	Workers get low wages, no job security
Examples: Banks, factories, schools	Examples: Small shops, domestic work, street vendors

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Q5. What are the differences between public sector and private sector?
Answer:

Public Sector	Private Sector
Owned and controlled by government	Owned by private individuals
Aim is welfare of people	Aim is profit
Examples: Railways, ONGC, BSNL	Examples: TATA, Reliance, Infosys

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Q6. Why do we need the public sector?
Answer:

• To provide basic facilities like education, health, transport at low cost.

• To invest in large projects (railways, dams, steel plants) which require huge money and have long-term benefits.

• To ensure equitable distribution of resources and reduce inequalities.

• To generate employment and protect weaker sections.